a learning theory that only considers that which can be directly observed (e.g., human actions and the events surrounding those actions) in explaining and predicting learning.

an instructional design framework that proposes that as learners gain competence and confidence they require less and less explicit learning support.

instruction that typically occurs in association with a recognized educational institution or training organization that involves structured/designed courses and programs of instruction.

the inclusion of aspects of a game in a learning environment of situation; examples include a game-like activity to promote interest or adding a competitive aspect to a learning activity.

learning that occurs outside the context of a formal setting; examples include field trips, museums, and incidental learning in the context of everyday activities; some informal learning environments are designed to complement or supplement a formal learning environment.

an instructional computing system which contains and maintains a model of the learner and what he or she knows and does not know about a particular domain, a knowledge model of the task domain, and an instructional model of how to select and sequence instructional units for individuals depending on what they know and/or misunderstand.

the collection and analysis of large sets of data to enable and support evidence-based decision making on the part of administrators, curriculum specialists, instructional designers, program coordinators, students and teachers; learning analytics can support personalized learning.

Learning styles: the notion that different learners learn best when information is presented in certain forms and activities structured in a particular way; for example, Fleming (1995) distinguished visual, auditory, read/write, and kinesthetic learners.

digital games that are intended to result in specific learning outcomes or develop understanding of complex phenomena.

a learning theory that posits that context, to a large extent, determines meaning and affects interpretation, with the implication that learning activities should occur, when possible, in authentic situations; legitimate peripheral partici - pation in a community of learners is a key learning process according to situated learning theory (see Lave, 1988).